The Tokenizer Tax Across 25 European Languages: Domain Invariance, Cross-Lingual Few-Shot Effects, and the Ukrainian Penalty

# The Tokenizer Tax Across 24 European Languages: Domain Invariance, Cross-Lingual Few-Shot Effects, and the Ukrainian Penalty
Source: [https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718)
Volodymyr Ovcharov LEX AI Platform, legal\.org\.ua Kyiv, Ukraine

\(May 2026\)

###### Abstract

Tokenizer fertility – the number of tokens per word – imposes a hidden cost on non\-English NLP\. We measure fertility for ten foundation models across 25 European languages on parallel text, producing the first controlled tokenizer tax map for the continent\. The tax spans 2\.5×\\timesfrom English \(1\.2 tokens/word\) to Greek/Maltese \(∼\{\\sim\}3\.1\), following a clear hierarchy: Romance \(1\.5–1\.7\), Germanic \(1\.7–1\.9\), Slavic \(2\.2–2\.5\), Uralic/Baltic \(2\.7–3\.0\)\. Ukrainian \(2\.7\) pays 15–18% more than cognate Slavic languages, reflecting underrepresentation in pre\-training data\. Fertility rankings are domain\-invariant across three text registers \(ρ\>0\.97\\rho\>0\.97\)\. A subword analysis reveals that high\-fertility tokenizers fragment morphological boundaries rather than preserving them\. Cross\-lingual few\-shot evaluation on four Slavic languages shows that few\-shot effects are model\-intrinsic, not language\-dependent\. We release all measurements as a public dataset\.

Keywords:tokenizer fertility, language tax, cross\-lingual evaluation, few\-shot prompting, morphologically rich languages, Ukrainian NLP, Slavic languages

## 1Introduction

Every token costs money\. When a tokenizer fragments Ukrainian text into 2\.7 tokens per word but handles English at 1\.2, the same API call costs more than twice as much – a hidden “tokenizer tax” that penalizes billions of speakers of morphologically rich languages\.Petrov et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib15)\)andAhia et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib3)\)documented this disparity, but existing measurements cover individual languages on heterogeneous text, making it impossible to disentangle language effects from content effects\.

This paper provides four things the literature lacks\. First, acontrolled cross\-lingual fertility map: we measure ten foundation models on parallel text in 25 European languages, isolating the tokenizer’s contribution from content variation\. Second, adomain invariance test: we compare fertility across three text registers – legal, news, and encyclopedic – to determine whether a single measurement suffices across applications\. Third, asubword analysisthat reveals how different tokenizers fragment morphologically complex Ukrainian words, explaining the fertility gap mechanistically\. Fourth, adownstream consequence test: we evaluate few\-shot classification across four Slavic languages to determine whether the tokenizer tax affects task performance\.

Ovcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)showed that tokenizer fertility varies by 1\.6×\\timesacross models on Ukrainian legal text and that few\-shot prompting can degrade performance by up to 26 pp\. We extend these findings along the cross\-lingual axis and add three new model families \(GPT\-4o, Gemma 2, DeepSeek V3\):

1. 1\.Domain invariance\(Experiment 1\): Fertility rankings are stable across three text registers – legal, news, and encyclopedic – with Spearmanρ\>0\.97\\rho\>0\.97between domains\. A single measurement predicts cost across all applications\.
2. 2\.Cross\-lingual fertility map\(Experiment 2\): Fertility across 25 EU languages on parallel text, revealing a 2\.5×\\timesspread from English \(1\.23\) to Greek/Maltese \(3\.1\)\. Ukrainian \(2\.66\) pays 15–18% more than cognate Slavic languages\.
3. 3\.Subword analysis\(Experiment 2b\): Morphological decomposition analysis showing that high\-fertility tokenizers split at arbitrary byte boundaries rather than morpheme boundaries, explaining the performance gap\.
4. 4\.Cross\-lingual few\-shot\(Experiment 3\): Few\-shot classification on SIB\-200 across Ukrainian, Polish, Russian, and Czech\. The effect is model\-intrinsic: the same models that benefit in one language benefit in all four\.
5. 5\.Linguistic competence\(Experiment 4\): ULP benchmark \(347 grammar questions\) tests whether fertility predicts grammatical accuracy\.

## 2Related Work

### 2\.1Few\-Shot Learning and Its Limits

Brown et al\. \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib4)\)established few\-shot in\-context learning as a core capability of large language models\. Subsequent work has shown that few\-shot performance depends on example selection\(Liu et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib10)\), format consistency\(Min et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib11)\), and label distribution\(Zhao et al\.,[2021](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib18)\)\.Min et al\. \([2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib11)\)demonstrated that even random labels can improve performance, suggesting that demonstrations primarily specify task format rather than input–output mappings\.

However, these studies focus overwhelmingly on English\.Lai et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib9)\)found significant performance variation across languages but did not systematically investigate few\-shot effects\.Ovcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)documented systematic few\-shot degradation on Ukrainian legal text, showing that the effect depends on model architecture rather than input language\. Our work extends the cross\-lingual dimension: testing whether the same patterns hold across four Slavic languages and 25 European languages\.

### 2\.2Tokenizer Fertility and Multilingual Fairness

Petrov et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib15)\)formalized the “language tax” imposed by suboptimal tokenization, showing 2–15×\\timestoken cost variation across languages\.Ahia et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib3)\)demonstrated that API cost varies by an order of magnitude across languages for equivalent content\.Rust et al\. \([2021](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib16)\)showed that monolingual performance correlates with pre\-training data proportion, with fertility as a proxy\.

These studies examine general\-domain text or single languages\.Niklaus et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib13)\)introduced LEXTREME, a multi\-lingual legal benchmark, but did not measure tokenizer fertility or few\-shot effects\. Alternative approaches bypass the tokenizer entirely: CANINE\(Clark et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib19)\)operates on Unicode code points and ByT5\(Xue et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib21)\)on raw bytes, eliminating the fertility disparity at the cost of longer sequences\.Zheng et al\. \([2021](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib22)\)showed that vocabulary reallocation can reduce fertility by 15–30% for underserved languages\. We provide the first controlled cross\-lingual comparison of six tokenizers across 25 languages on parallel text, isolating the tokenizer’s contribution from content variation, and test domain invariance across three text registers\.

### 2\.3Morphologically Rich Languages in NLP

Ukrainian, Polish, Russian, and Czech are Slavic languages with rich inflectional morphology: 7 cases, grammatical gender, and extensive verb conjugation\. This morphological complexity interacts with subword tokenizers, potentially producing more fragmented representations that interfere with in\-context pattern matching\.Conneau et al\. \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib6)\)showed that multilingual model performance correlates with pre\-training data volume, with low\-resource languages suffering disproportionately\.Chaplynskyi \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib5)\)showed consistent underperformance of multilingual models on Ukrainian compared to English, a finding our cross\-lingual experiments extend to the few\-shot setting\.

## 3Methodology

### 3\.1Models

We extend the seven API models fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)with three additional models whose tokenizers are publicly available, bringing the total to ten \(Table[2](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S3.T2)\)\. The original seven are accessed via the AWS Bedrock API; the three additions are measured using their HuggingFace tokenizers and OpenAI’stiktokenlibrary\. We validate the local tokenizer approach by comparing it against API measurements on Ukrainian news text for the three models available in both settings \(Table[1](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S3.T1)\)\. Local and API fertility values agree within 1\.8% \(mean absolute difference 0\.030 tokens/word\), confirming that local tokenizer measurement is a reliable and cost\-free substitute\.

Table 1:Validation: API\-reported vs\. local tokenizer fertility on Ukrainian SIB\-200 news text\.Δ\\Delta= absolute difference\.Table 2:Models evaluated\. Original seven via AWS Bedrock \(April–May 2026\); three additions \(†\) via local tokenizer\. MoE = mixture of experts; active = parameters per forward pass\.
### 3\.2Datasets

#### SIB\-200

\(Adelani et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib2)\)is a topic classification benchmark covering 205 languages with 1,000 examples each, annotated into 7 categories\. Examples are parallel across languages \(sameindex\_id\), enabling paired cross\-lingual comparisons\. We use all 25 EU languages plus Ukrainian for fertility measurement, and Ukrainian, Polish, Russian, and Czech for classification\.

#### Ukrainian Wikipedia

We sample 199 articles from thewikimedia/wikipediadataset \(November 2023 dump\) as the encyclopedic text register for domain invariance testing \(Experiment 1\)\.

#### ULP

\(Galeshchuk,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib8)\)is an expert\-curated benchmark of 347 multiple\-choice questions testing Ukrainian grammar and orthography, validated by professional linguists\.

### 3\.3Evaluation Protocol

All evaluations use the AWS Bedrockinvoke\_modelAPI with temperature 0 for deterministic outputs, maintaining exact consistency withOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\. Provider\-specific message formatting is preserved: Meta models use the Llama 3/4 prompt template, Amazon Nova uses themessages\-v1schema, and remaining models \(Qwen, Mistral, NVIDIA\) use the standard messages format\.

#### Fertility measurement\.

We report the average ratio of API\-reported input tokens to whitespace\-delimited words\. Because SIB\-200 texts are short \(typically 15–30 words\), measuring fertility on individual sentences would be dominated by system prompt overhead\. FollowingOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\), we concatenate texts into blocks of approximately 6,000 characters before measurement, yielding blocks of∼\{\\sim\}840 words on average\. For EU Acts, we concatenate aligned segments from each language into blocks of similar size\. A trivial prompt \(“Repeat the first word”\) ensures the measurement captures tokenizer behavior on the input text rather than task\-specific output\.

#### Classification\.

For SIB\-200 topic classification, we report accuracy on the test split \(204 parallel examples across all languages\)\. Few\-shot examples are drawn from the training split: one example per class \(7 total for SIB\-200\)\. The prompt instructs the model to respond with only the English category name; responses are normalized via substring matching with a Ukrainian\-to\-English label map to handle models that respond in Ukrainian\.

#### Linguistic competence\.

For ULP, we report accuracy on 347 multiple\-choice questions in zero\-shot mode, and on 344 questions in few\-shot mode \(3 held out as demonstrations\)\. The prompt presents each question with Ukrainian answer letters \(А, Б, В, Г, Д\) and instructs the model to respond with only the letter\.

## 4Experiments and Results

### 4\.1Experiment 1: Cross\-Domain Fertility

To test whether the fertility spread observed on legal text is domain\-specific or a tokenizer property, we measured fertility on two additional Ukrainian text registers: news \(SIB\-200, 204 test examples\) and encyclopedic text \(Ukrainian Wikipedia, 199 articles\)\. All texts were concatenated into∼\{\\sim\}6,000\-character blocks matching the protocol ofOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\. For the six models with publicly available tokenizers, we measured fertility locally; for the remaining four \(Mistral Large 3, Nemotron, Nova Pro, Qwen3 235B\), we use the API measurements fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\.

Table[3](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.T3)presents the results across three domains\.

Table 3:Cross\-domain tokenizer fertility on Ukrainian text across three registers\. Legal fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\(API\); News and Wiki measured via local tokenizers\. Models sorted by news fertility\. † = local tokenizer only \(no API baseline\)\.Three patterns emerge\. First, thefertility ranking is preserved across all three domains: the six locally\-measured models rank identically on news and encyclopedic text \(Spearmanρ=1\.0\\rho=1\.0\)\. The max/min ratio is 1\.68×\\timeson news and 1\.58×\\timeson encyclopedic text, consistent with the 1\.61×\\timeson legal text reported byOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\. Second,encyclopedic text is the most expensivedomain for all six models, reflecting Wikipedia’s diverse vocabulary including proper nouns, technical terminology, and transliterated foreign words\. Legal text is intermediate, while news is cheapest\. Third, the three new models slot predictably into the hierarchy:Gemma 2\(256K vocabulary\) is nearly as efficient as the Llama family despite a different tokenizer design;GPT\-4o\(200K vocabulary\) falls in the middle tier;DeepSeek V3\(128K vocabulary\) clusters with the high\-fertility group despite its large vocabulary, suggesting that vocabulary size alone does not determine efficiency on Cyrillic text\.

The practical implication is clear: a single fertility measurement on any representative Ukrainian text is sufficient to predict the cost ranking across domains\. Practitioners need not re\-measure fertility for each new application\.

MaverickLlama 3\.3Gemma 2GPT\-4oDeepSeekQwen3223344Fertility \(tokens/word\)News \(SIB\-200\)Wiki \(encyclopedic\)Figure 1:Cross\-domain fertility across three Ukrainian text registers\. Model rankings are perfectly preserved between news and encyclopedic text \(ρ=1\.0\\rho=1\.0\)\. Encyclopedic text \(Wikipedia\) is consistently the most expensive domain due to diverse vocabulary\.
### 4\.2Experiment 2: Cross\-Lingual Fertility

To contextualize Ukrainian’s tokenizer penalty within the European language landscape, we measured fertility for all six locally\-available tokenizers across 25 EU languages on SIB\-200 parallel text\. Because SIB\-200 examples are parallel across languages \(sameindex\_id\), any fertility difference is attributable solely to the tokenizer’s handling of that language, not to content variation\.

Table[4](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.T4)presents mean fertility by language family\. Figure[2](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.F2)shows the full 25\-language×\\times6\-model heatmap\.

Table 4:Mean tokenizer fertility across 6 models on SIB\-200 parallel text, by language family\. Languages sorted by mean fertility within each family\. Min/Max columns show the range across models\.The results reveal a clear hierarchy driven by script and morphological complexity\. Latin\-script languages with analytic morphology \(English, Romance\) are the most efficient \(1\.2–1\.7 mean tokens/word\)\. Germanic languages cluster at 1\.7–1\.9\. Slavic languages span 2\.2–2\.5\. Agglutinative and morphologically complex languages \(Uralic, Baltic\) reach 2\.7–3\.0\. Greek and Maltese are the most expensive at∼\{\\sim\}3\.1\.

Ukrainian \(2\.66 mean\) is more expensive to tokenize than any other Slavic language in the dataset, despite similar morphological complexity to Polish \(2\.25\) or Czech \(2\.28\)\. This gap – approximately 15–18% higher than cognate Slavic languages – suggests that Ukrainian’s disadvantage is not purely morphological but also reflectsunderrepresentation in pre\-training data\. Polish, Czech, and Bulgarian, with larger digital footprints and longer inclusion in multilingual corpora, have better\-optimized subword vocabularies\.

The Min/Max columns in Table[4](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.T4)reveal that model variation is substantial: Greek ranges from 2\.29 \(Maverick\) to 5\.73 \(Qwen3\), a 2\.5×\\timesspread for the*same language*\. Ukrainian shows a similar pattern: 2\.16 \(Maverick\) to 3\.62 \(Qwen3\), confirming that the Ukrainian penalty depends strongly on tokenizer design\. Maverick and Gemma 2 handle Cyrillic efficiently; Qwen3 and DeepSeek do not\.

MaverickLlama 3\.3Gemma 2GPT\-4oDeepSeekQwen3MalteseGreekFinnishLatvianLithuanianEstonianHungarianUkrainianSlovakBulgarianCroatianSlovenianCzechIrishPolishRomanianSwedishDanishGermanDutchItalianPortugueseFrenchSpanishEnglish3\.23\.23\.43\.42\.92\.92\.62\.63\.33\.33\.23\.22\.32\.32\.52\.52\.62\.62\.42\.4335\.75\.72\.72\.73\.43\.42\.72\.72\.62\.63\.13\.13\.43\.42\.52\.53\.43\.42\.72\.72\.62\.63\.23\.23\.43\.42\.52\.53\.33\.32\.52\.52\.62\.6333\.23\.22\.52\.5332\.62\.62\.42\.4333\.13\.12\.22\.23\.13\.12\.42\.42\.62\.62\.92\.93\.13\.12\.22\.22\.32\.32\.32\.32\.52\.53\.13\.13\.63\.62\.12\.12\.52\.52\.22\.22\.32\.32\.62\.62\.92\.91\.91\.92\.62\.6222\.12\.12\.52\.52\.82\.82\.12\.12\.52\.52\.22\.2222\.52\.52\.62\.62\.12\.12\.42\.42\.12\.1222\.42\.42\.62\.6222\.12\.12\.12\.12\.22\.22\.32\.32\.92\.92\.12\.12\.42\.42\.32\.31\.91\.92\.42\.42\.52\.51\.91\.92\.62\.6222\.22\.22\.32\.32\.52\.51\.61\.62\.12\.11\.81\.81\.81\.82\.12\.12\.12\.11\.71\.72\.12\.11\.71\.71\.81\.8222\.12\.11\.81\.8221\.71\.71\.71\.722221\.61\.6221\.51\.51\.61\.61\.91\.9221\.61\.61\.91\.91\.61\.61\.41\.41\.71\.71\.91\.91\.51\.51\.81\.81\.51\.51\.61\.61\.71\.71\.91\.91\.41\.41\.71\.71\.41\.41\.41\.41\.61\.61\.71\.71\.41\.41\.71\.71\.41\.41\.41\.41\.61\.61\.71\.71\.31\.31\.61\.61\.31\.31\.31\.31\.51\.51\.61\.61\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.21\.31\.3111\.51\.5222\.52\.5333\.53\.5444\.54\.5555\.55\.5FertilityFigure 2:Tokenizer fertility across 25 languages and 6 models on SIB\-200 parallel text\. Languages sorted by mean fertility\. Ukrainian \(2\.66 mean\) is more expensive than all other Slavic languages\. Qwen3’s Greek penalty \(5\.73\) is an outlier; other models handle Greek at 2\.3–3\.0\.Figure[2](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.F2)shows the full heatmap\. The hierarchy is consistent across models: English is always cheapest; Greek, Maltese, and Ukrainian cluster at the expensive end\. Model rankings are stable across all languages: Maverick and GPT\-4o are consistently the most efficient, while Qwen3 is the least efficient\.

### 4\.3Experiment 2b: Subword Decomposition Analysis

To understand*why*fertility varies across tokenizers on the same Ukrainian text, we examined how each tokenizer splits 12 representative legal terms\. Table[5](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S4.T5)shows the decomposition for six models on four high\-frequency words\.

Table 5:Subword decomposition of Ukrainian legal terms\. Pipe \(\|\|\) separates subword tokens\.nn= token count\. Models ordered by vocabulary size\. Transliterated for readability\.Two patterns are clear\. First,low\-fertility tokenizers preserve morpheme boundaries: Gemma 2 and Llama 3\.3 split‘‘вiдповiдальнiсть’’into recognizable morphemes, while Qwen3 and DeepSeek fragment it into near\-character\-level pieces that cross morphological boundaries\.

Second,vocabulary size alone does not predict efficiency: DeepSeek V3 \(128K vocab\) and Qwen3 \(151K vocab\) both fragment Ukrainian words into 8–9 tokens, while Llama 3\.3 \(128K vocab\) achieves 3–4 tokens\. The proportion of Cyrillic\-specific merge operations matters more than total vocabulary size\. Models trained predominantly on English and Chinese text \(Qwen, DeepSeek\) allocate fewer vocabulary entries to Ukrainian morphemes despite large total vocabularies\.

Across all 12 analyzed words, the mean token count is: Maverick 3\.5, Llama 3\.3 3\.6, Gemma 2 3\.7, GPT\-4o 4\.2, DeepSeek 5\.4, Qwen3 6\.6\. The 1\.9×\\timesratio between the most and least efficient tokenizers on individual words is consistent with the corpus\-level fertility measurements in Experiments 1 and 2\.

### 4\.4Experiment 3: Cross\-Lingual Few\-Shot Classification

To test whether the few\-shot effect is language\-specific or model\-intrinsic, we evaluated all seven models on SIB\-200 topic classification across four Slavic languages using parallel examples \(sameindex\_id\)\. We also include the legal text few\-shot delta fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)for cross\-domain comparison\.

Table 6:Few\-shot delta \(ΔFS\\Delta\_\{\\text\{FS\}\}= FS−\-ZS accuracy, in pp\) on SIB\-200 topic classification across four Slavic languages, plus Ukrainian legal text fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\. Models sorted by SIB\-200 average\. Bold = consistent direction across all 4 news languages\.With 204 test examples and 7 classes, the 95% Clopper–Pearson confidence interval on a single accuracy is±\\pm5–7 pp\. To assess whether few\-shot deltas exceed this noise floor, we compute exact McNemar’s tests on paired zero\-shot vs\. few\-shot predictions for each model×\\timeslanguage cell\. Of the 28 cells \(7 models×\\times4 languages\), 12 are significant atp<0\.05p<0\.05after Holm–Bonferroni correction: all four Maverick cells \(degradation\) and all four Nemotron cells \(improvement\), plus Qwen3 32B on Russian and Czech, and Llama 3\.3 on Czech\. The remaining deltas, while directionally consistent, do not individually reach significance at this sample size\.

The results answer the central question of this paper\. The few\-shot effect pattern isidentical across all four Slavic languages:

- •Four models \(Nemotron, Qwen3 32B, Qwen3 235B, Nova Pro\)improve on all four languages—average deltas range from\+\+3\.2 to\+\+10\.5 pp\. Nemotron’s improvement is significant on all four \(p<0\.01p<0\.01\)\.
- •One model \(Llama 4 Maverick\)degrades on all four languages—average−\-8\.4 pp, with Russian showing the most severe degradation \(−\-15\.7 pp\)\. All four Maverick cells are significant \(p<0\.001p<0\.001\)\.
- •Mistral Large 3 and Llama 3\.3 show mixed effects, with language\-dependent direction; individual deltas are not significant\.

By language, 5–6 of 7 models improve with few\-shot examples across all four languages \(Czech: 6/7, others: 5/7\)\. The consistency across languages with different scripts \(Cyrillic for Ukrainian and Russian vs\. Latin for Polish and Czech\), different tokenizer fertility levels, and different pre\-training data volumes rules out both the “Ukrainian\-specific” and “morphological complexity” hypotheses\.

The few\-shot effect ismodel\-intrinsic: Maverick’s attention mechanism consistently anchors on surface patterns in demonstrations regardless of language, while Nemotron’s hybrid architecture consistently leverages demonstrations for task specification\. This is a property of model design, not of the input language\.

#### Error analysis: Maverick degradation\.

To understand*how*Maverick degrades, we examined its Ukrainian SIB\-200 predictions\. In zero\-shot mode, errors are distributed across classes roughly proportionally to class frequency\. In few\-shot mode, Maverick shifts toward two dominant classes—*science\_and\_technology*and*politics*—at the expense of minority classes:*geography*recall drops from 76\.5% to 41\.2%, and*entertainment*from 82\.1% to 64\.3%\. This pattern is consistent with*demonstration anchoring*: the model over\-weights surface patterns from the provided examples \(which include one geography and one entertainment example\) rather than using them for task specification\. The same class\-collapse pattern appears on Russian \(−\-15\.7 pp\), where Maverick’s geography recall drops from 70\.6% to 23\.5%\. This is consistent with*demonstration anchoring*: hidden\-state representations shift toward the demonstration content rather than the query\(Ovcharov,[2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\.

UkrainianPolishRussianCzech\-10010\-10010\-10010\-10010MaverickMistralLlama 3\.3Qwen3 235BNova ProQwen3 32BNemotronΔFS\\Delta\_\{\\mathrm\{FS\}\}\(pp\)Figure 3:Few\-shot delta \(ΔFS\\Delta\_\{\\text\{FS\}\}, pp\) across four Slavic languages on SIB\-200\. Red bars = degradation, green = improvement\. Maverick degrades on all four languages; Nemotron improves on all four\. The pattern is model\-intrinsic, not language\-dependent\.

### 4\.5Experiment 4: Linguistic Competence

To test whether tokenizer fertility predicts broader linguistic capability, we evaluated all seven models on the ULP benchmark—347 expert\-curated multiple\-choice questions testing Ukrainian grammar and orthography\.

Table 7:ULP Ukrainian Language Proficiency results\. Fertility fromOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\.ΔFS\\Delta\_\{\\text\{FS\}\}= few\-shot minus zero\-shot accuracy\.Llama 4 Maverick—the model with the most efficient tokenizer \(fertility 2\.43\)—achieves the highest ULP accuracy \(57\.3%\), 6 percentage points above the next\-best model \(Mistral Large 3, 51\.0%\)\. However, the overall correlation between fertility and zero\-shot accuracy is weak: Spearmanρ=−0\.43\\rho=\-0\.43\(p=0\.34p=0\.34\), Pearsonr=−0\.35r=\-0\.35\(p=0\.44p=0\.44\)\. With only seven data points, statistical power is limited, but the trend direction is consistent with the hypothesis that better tokenization facilitates linguistic competence\.

Nemotron Super 3 is a notable outlier: despite moderate fertility \(3\.08\), it achieves only 27\.7% zero\-shot accuracy—the lowest among all models, and barely above the 20–25% random baseline for 4–5 choice questions\. This model’s hybrid Mamba\-Transformer architecture may be optimized for long\-document reasoning rather than fine\-grained grammatical knowledge\.

The few\-shot effect on ULP is mixed: four models degrade, three improve\. The largest improvement is Nemotron Super 3 \(\+\+8\.7 pp\), partially compensating for its low zero\-shot baseline\. The largest degradation is Maverick \(−\-4\.2 pp\), consistent with its pattern of few\-shot sensitivity observed on SIB\-200\.

## 5Discussion

### 5\.1Fertility Is a Tokenizer Property

Experiment 1 demonstrates that tokenizer fertility rankings are invariant across domains\. The 1\.68×\\timesspread between the most and least efficient tokenizers on news text is consistent with the 1\.58×\\timesspread on encyclopedic text and the 1\.61×\\timeson legal text\(Ovcharov,[2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)\. Model rankings are perfectly preserved \(ρ=1\.0\\rho=1\.0\): Qwen3 is the least efficient \(∼\{\\sim\}3\.6 tokens/word on news\), Maverick the most efficient \(∼\{\\sim\}2\.2\), with Gemma 2, GPT\-4o, and DeepSeek in between\.

This invariance has a simple explanation: tokenizer vocabulary is fixed at training time and does not adapt to the input domain\. A model that fragments Ukrainian words into more subword tokens does so regardless of whether the text discusses tort law or football\. The absolute fertility level is lower on news text \(6 of 7 models show a negativeΔ\\Delta\), reflecting the higher density of domain\-specific terminology in legal text, but the*relative ranking*is determined by vocabulary design\.

Experiment 2 extends this finding across 25 EU languages: mean fertility varies by 2\.5×\\timesbetween English \(1\.23\) and Greek/Maltese \(∼\{\\sim\}3\.1\), with substantial model variation \(Qwen3 reaches 5\.73 on Greek\)\. Within the Slavic family, Ukrainian \(2\.66\) is 15–18% more expensive than Polish \(2\.25\) or Czech \(2\.28\), suggesting that Ukrainian’s penalty combines morphological complexity with underrepresentation in pre\-training data\. This has direct cost implications: processing the same content in Ukrainian costs 2\.2×\\timesmore than in English on average, purely due to tokenizer design\.

### 5\.2Few\-Shot Effects Are Model\-Intrinsic, Confirmed Cross\-Lingually

Experiment 3 confirms on API models whatOvcharov \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14)\)observed on Ukrainian legal text: the few\-shot effect is task\-dependent, with five of seven models improving on SIB\-200 news while five of seven degraded on legal text\. Two models – Maverick \(−\-7\.8 pp\) and Mistral \(−\-4\.4 pp\) – degrade on both tasks\.

The cross\-lingual dimension \(Experiment 3\) adds a finding that single\-language studies cannot provide: the effect is not just task\-dependent butmodel\-intrinsic across languages\. Maverick degrades on all four Slavic languages \(−\-8\.4 pp average\); Nemotron improves on all four \(\+\+10\.5 pp\)\. This cross\-lingual consistency forms a complete picture: the few\-shot effect is determined by how a model processes demonstration content, not by the input language\.

### 5\.3The Ukrainian Penalty: Morphology Plus Underrepresentation

Experiment 2 reveals that Ukrainian’s tokenizer tax is not explained by morphological complexity alone\. Within the Slavic family, Polish \(2\.25\) and Czech \(2\.28\) – languages with comparable inflectional systems – are 15–18% cheaper to tokenize than Ukrainian \(2\.66\)\. This gap likely reflects differences in digital presence and pre\-training data volume\.

Publicly available corpus statistics confirm this hypothesis\. Table[8](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#S5.T8)shows the volume of Ukrainian vs\. other Slavic languages in three major pre\-training corpora\. Despite comparable speaker populations \(∼\{\\sim\}38–40M for Ukrainian and Polish\), Ukrainian consistently has 2–6×\\timesless training data: 3\.1×\\timesfewer tokens than Polish in CulturaX\(Nguyen et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib12)\), 2\.4×\\timesless text in mC4, and 5\.7×\\timesfewer words in OSCAR 23\.01\(Abadji et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib1)\)\. Czech, with only 10\.5M speakers, has 1\.2–3\.0×\\timesmore data than Ukrainian in most corpora\. This data deficit directly explains the tokenizer penalty: subword vocabularies are optimized on training data, and languages with less data receive fewer dedicated merge operations, resulting in more fragmented tokenization\.

Table 8:Ukrainian vs\. other Slavic languages in major pre\-training corpora\. Ratio = language volume / Ukrainian volume\.The practical consequence is concrete: processing the same content in Ukrainian costs 2\.2×\\timesmore than in English on average, purely due to tokenizer design\. For production systems serving Ukrainian users, this tax compounds across every API call\.

### 5\.4Fertility and Linguistic Competence

Experiment 4 is exploratory: withn=7n=7models, it cannot establish a robust fertility–competence relationship\. The correlation on ULP is suggestive but not statistically significant \(ρ=−0\.43\\rho=\-0\.43,p=0\.34p=0\.34\)\. Maverick \(lowest fertility, highest ULP\) and both Qwen models \(highest fertility, below\-average ULP\) fit the expected pattern, but Nemotron Super 3 \(moderate fertility, worst ULP\) and Mistral Large 3 \(moderate fertility, second\-best ULP\) break it\.

This suggests that fertility is at best a*weak*predictor of linguistic competence\. A well\-optimized tokenizer that preserves morphological boundaries may facilitate grammar tasks, but architecture and training data composition matter at least as much\. Nemotron’s Mamba\-Transformer hybrid, optimized for long\-range dependencies, appears to trade fine\-grained morphological sensitivity for document\-level reasoning—excelling at case outcome classification\(Ovcharov,[2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib14), 96\.0%\)while failing on grammatical minutiae \(27\.7% ULP\)\.

### 5\.5Practical Recommendations

1. 1\.Default to zero\-shotfor morphologically rich languages\. Validate few\-shot per model and task before deploying\. Consider chain\-of\-thought\(Wei et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib17)\)as an alternative prompting strategy that does not require demonstration examples\.
2. 2\.Start with tokenizer analysis\.Fertility rankings are domain\-invariant; measure once, apply everywhere\.
3. 3\.Ignore parameter countsfor non\-English model selection\. Use language\-specific benchmarks\.
4. 4\.Budget for the tokenizer tax\.A model with 1\.6×\\timeshigher fertility is 1\.6×\\timesmore expensive per document\.

### 5\.6Mitigating the Tokenizer Tax

Several strategies can reduce the disproportionate cost imposed on morphologically rich and underrepresented languages\. We group them by the layer of the pipeline they target\.

#### Vocabulary expansion\.

The most direct remedy is to augment an existing BPE vocabulary with language\-specific merge operations\.Rust et al\. \([2021](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib16)\)demonstrated that tokenizer quality varies dramatically across languages and that fertility is a reliable proxy for downstream performance\.Zheng et al\. \([2021](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib22)\)showed that reallocating vocabulary capacity – adding merges for underserved scripts and morphemes – reduces fertility by 15–30% without degrading performance on high\-resource languages\. For Ukrainian, targeted addition of frequent morphological suffixes \(e\.g\.,\-ння,\-ськ\-,\-iсть\) could close much of the gap with Polish and Czech\.

#### Continued pre\-training\.

Language\-adaptive pre\-training on a domain\-relevant corpus can improve subword representations even without modifying the vocabulary\.Gururangan et al\. \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib20)\)showed that continued pre\-training on domain and task data yields consistent gains; applied to a low\-fertility language, it reduces the effective cost per token by improving per\-token informativeness, partially compensating for the higher token count\.

#### Tokenizer\-free architectures\.

Character\-level and byte\-level models eliminate the fertility disparity entirely\. CANINE\(Clark et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib19)\)operates directly on Unicode code points, while ByT5\(Xue et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2605.24718#bib.bib21)\)processes raw UTF\-8 bytes, achieving competitive performance without any learned vocabulary\. The trade\-off is computational: sequence lengths grow 3–5×\\times, increasing attention cost quadratically\. These architectures are most attractive when equitable multilingual coverage outweighs inference budget constraints\.

#### Tokenizer\-aware inference\.

When the model and its vocabulary are fixed – as is typical with proprietary APIs – practitioners can still mitigate the tax at inference time\. Strategies include prompt compression, language\-specific prompt templates that avoid high\-fertility constructions, and cost\-aware model routing that selects cheaper tokenizers for languages with elevated fertility\. The fertility measurements reported in this paper \(released as a public dataset\) provide the empirical basis for such routing policies\.

## 6Limitations

#### SIB\-200 test set size\.

The test split contains only 204 examples with 7 classes, resulting in some classes having as few as 17 instances \(geography\)\. Confidence intervals on minority classes are wide\.

#### Three domains\.

Domain invariance of fertility is now tested on three registers \(legal, news, encyclopedic\), which strengthens the claim but still leaves specialized registers \(biomedical, parliamentary, social media\) untested\. Similarly, the “task\-dependent” few\-shot conclusion rests on two tasks; a third classification task would increase confidence\.

#### Slavic language coverage\.

We test four Slavic languages\. Including non\-Slavic morphologically rich languages \(e\.g\., Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish\) would strengthen the morphological complexity hypothesis\.

#### TMX segment quality\.

EU Act translations may contain formulaic boilerplate that inflates cross\-lingual similarity and deflates fertility differences\.

#### ULP dataset size\.

With 347 questions and only 7 data points in the fertility–competence correlation, statistical power is limited\.

#### Model coverage\.

We evaluate ten models, but the landscape evolves rapidly\. Results may not generalize to models released after May 2026\. Three models \(Mistral Large 3, Nemotron, Nova Pro\) lack publicly available tokenizers and are measured only via API\.

## 7Conclusion

We presented a controlled cross\-lingual tokenizer fertility map for ten models across 25 European languages, extended with subword decomposition analysis and mitigation strategies\. Our key findings:

1. 1\.The tokenizer tax spans 2\.5×\\timesacross European languages \(English 1\.23 to Greek/Maltese 3\.1, mean across six local tokenizers\)\. Ukrainian \(2\.66\) pays 15–18% more than cognate Slavic languages; corpus statistics confirm this reflects 2–6×\\timesless pre\-training data than Polish despite comparable speaker populations\.
2. 2\.Fertility is domain\-invariant across three registers\.Model rankings are perfectly preserved \(ρ=1\.0\\rho=1\.0\) between news and encyclopedic text, and consistent with legal text\. A single measurement predicts cost across all domains\.
3. 3\.Subword analysis reveals the mechanism\.High\-fertility tokenizers fragment Ukrainian words at arbitrary byte boundaries rather than morpheme boundaries: Qwen3 splits “вiдповiдальнiсть” into 9 subwords vs\. 4 for Gemma 2, despite comparable vocabulary sizes\. Vocabulary size alone does not predict efficiency; the proportion of Cyrillic\-specific merges matters more\.
4. 4\.Few\-shot effects are model\-intrinsic across languages\.Cross\-lingual experiments on four Slavic languages show identical patterns: Maverick degrades everywhere \(−\-8\.4 pp avg\), Nemotron improves everywhere \(\+\+10\.5 pp avg\)\.
5. 5\.Fertility weakly predicts grammatical competence\(ρ=−0\.43\\rho=\-0\.43,n=7n=7\), but architecture matters more: Nemotron excels at classification while scoring worst on grammar\.

For practitioners:measure fertility once– it predicts cost across all domains\.Validate few\-shot per model and task, not per language\.Budget for the Ukrainian tax: 2\.2×\\timesEnglish cost per API call\. Total experiment cost: $4\.05\. All fertility measurements are released as a public dataset\.

## Acknowledgments

This work was conducted as part of the LEX AI platform development at legal\.org\.ua\. Compute costs for all experiments were covered by an AWS Activate grant\. We thank the creators of SIB\-200, the ULP benchmark, and the EU Acts in Ukrainian corpus for making their datasets publicly available\.

#### Data and code availability\.

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