Challenges and Recommendations for LLMs-as-a-Judge in Multilingual Settings and Low-Resource Languages

# Challenges and Recommendations for LLMs-as-a-Judge in Multilingual Settings and Low-Resource Languages
Source: [https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235)
A\.Seza DoğruözXixian LiaoVerena Blaschke Jakob Prange,Senyu Li,David Ifeoluwa Adelani,,

LT3, IDLab, Universiteit Gent,Barcelona Supercomputing Center, LMU Munich & Munich Center for Machine Learning, German Center for Addiction Research in Childhood and Adolescence, University Medical Center Hamburg\-Eppendorf, Mila \- Quebec AI Institute,McGill University,Canada CIFAR AI Chair as\.dogruoz@ugent\.be

###### Abstract

LLM\-as\-a\-Judge has become the dominant evaluation paradigm for many natural language generation tasks, due to shortcomings of conventional metrics and high correlations with human judgment, albeit mostly in English\. There are now attempts to extend LLM\-as\-a\-Judge to multilingual settings including low\-resource languages\. However, LLMs have limited proficiency in low\-resource languages, and there is often no adequate human validation in these settings\. To highlight the scope of the problem and current practices, we explore the use of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge evaluators in ACL Anthology papers focusing on multilingual settings and low\-resource languages across a diverse set of tasks\. Out of 650 papers mentioning LLM\-as\-a\-judge, only 33 of them focus on low\-resource or multilingual settings\. Our in\-depth analysis of these papers indicates inconsistent evaluation outcomes, a tendency to overtrust LLM judgments in multilingual settings, and the widespread reliance on a single judge model per study\. To help the NLP community further, we conclude with recommendations about how to use LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in multilingual and low\-resource settings\.

Challenges and Recommendations for LLMs\-as\-a\-Judge in Multilingual Settings and Low\-Resource Languages

A\.Seza DoğruözXixian LiaoVerena BlaschkeJakob Prange,Senyu Li,David Ifeoluwa Adelani,,LT3, IDLab, Universiteit Gent,Barcelona Supercomputing Center,LMU Munich & Munich Center for Machine Learning,German Center for Addiction Research in Childhood and Adolescence,University Medical Center Hamburg\-Eppendorf,Mila \- Quebec AI Institute,McGill University,Canada CIFAR AI Chairas\.dogruoz@ugent\.be

## 1Introduction

Until recently, evaluation in NLP systems has mainly been performed by humans, with advantages \(e\.g\., reliability, faithfulness, interpretability, quality control\) and disadvantages like high time investments and financial costs\(Muhammad et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib57); Hellwig et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib39); Wiechetek et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib86); Rouzegar and Makrehchi,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib71),inter alia\)\.

Large language models \(LLMs\) have become central to the development of Natural Language Processing \(NLP\) systems across a diverse range of tasksOpenAI et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib63)\); DeepSeek\-AI et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib21)\); Gemini Team et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib34)\)\. In addition to directly performing natural language generation \(NLG\) and understanding tasks, LLMs are increasingly used for evaluating the outputs of other language modelsZheng et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88)\); Adlakha et al\. \([2024a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib2)\)as well\. This paradigm is known asLLM\-as\-a\-Judgeand it profits from many features of state\-of\-the\-art generative language modeling\. These features include instruction following, multi\-step reasoning, ease of use through chat conversation capabilities, high linguistic proficiency in high\-resource languages, and the ability to generate explanations alongside outputs and judgments\.

While human experts are still the upper bound for overall evaluation quality and trust, LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is considered to be easier, cheaper and faster to scale\. However, there is limited research about whether LLM judges deliver reliable and trustworthy evaluations that correlate strongly with human judges\. These questions have previously been raised byZheng et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88)\), who also coined the term LLM\-as\-a\-Judge, and subsequently byChen et al\. \([2024b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib17)\)andBavaresco et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib7)\),inter alia\. While some of these studies observe high correlations between LLM and human judges, the focus remains only on English\.

Nevertheless, the current trend of using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge has been extended and scaled to languages other than English, including low\-resource languages \(LRLs\)\. Although some studies have highlighted low reliability in such settingsHada et al\. \([2024a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib37),[b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib38)\), LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is becoming a mainstream evaluation method due to \(1\) its perceived high correlation with human judgments \(which is often only validated for a small number of languages\); \(2\) fast and cheap evaluation; and \(3\) limitations and biases of traditional metrics, especially ones that are reference\-based\. As a result, LLM\-as\-a\-Judge has become a predominant evaluation paradigm for NLP tasks \(e\.g\., question answering and instruction following\), and is now being adopted across additional modalities, including visual question answering\(Chen et al\.,[2024a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib16)\)and AudioQAIvry and Watanabe \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib41)\)\.

However, several critical issues arise when LLM\-as\-a\-Judge systems are applied without sufficient caution across languages, including: \(1\) inconsistent evaluation outcomes depending on the prompt language, with performance often overestimated for low\-resource languages, \(2\) inaccurate performance estimation due to the limited proficiency or inadequate understanding of outputs expressed in low\-resource languages, and \(3\) the widespread reliance on a single judge for evaluation, without considering multi\-judge or ensemble\-based assessment\. At the same time, \(4\) the tendency to overtrust LLM judgments across settings;111Overtrusting LLM judgments becomes particularly insidious when what is judged are human\-generated outputs and annotations\. For example,Belay et al\. \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib8)\)use LLM\-as\-a\-Judge to audit the quality of human translation for LRLs even though related work shows this is unreliable without in\-context learning examplesLi et al\. \([2025c](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib49)\)\. Similarly,Cheng et al\. \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib19)\)find that, in difficult social scenarios, humans trust LLMs that evaluate their own stances favourably, even when they are clearly in the wrong\.clashes with \(5\) the extremely high requirements for reliability when evaluating high\-risk outputs involving safety, fairness, or cultural biases\.

Previous works on multilingual LLM\-as\-a\-Judge show that judgment consistency, as well as agreement with human judgments, can be particularly weak for low\-resource languages, raising concerns that LLM judges may be less reliable in the lower\-resource settings where automatic evaluation is especially tempting due to the scarcity of expert annotators\(Fu and Liu,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib33); Akinode et al\.,[2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib5)\)\. Yet, we lack a systematic analyses about to what extent current multilingual and low\-resource uses of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge are reliable \(i\.e\., whether judges are validated in the target languages, whether low\-resource languages receive direct human or gold\-label checks, and whether studies avoid over\-reliance on single general\-purpose judges\)\. Our paper addresses this gap in the literature through a systematic survey of 33 in\-scope papers retrieved from multilingual and low\-resource LLM\-as\-a\-Judge search criteria, analyzing how judges are deployed and validated across languages, tasks, and model families, and offering recommendations for more reliable cross\-lingual evaluation\.

## 2Related Work

The LLM\-as\-a\-Judge paradigm was introduced byZheng et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88)\), who proposed MT\-Bench and Chatbot Arena to evaluate chatbot alignment with human judgments\. Their findings \(based on evaluation in English\) show that frontier LLMs \(e\.g\., GPT\-4\) match human judgment at over 80% agreement\. They also identified key failure modes such asposition bias\(sensitivity to the order in which candidate responses are presented\),verbosity bias\(preference for longer responses regardless of quality\), andself\-enhancement bias\(tendency of a model to favor its own outputs\)\.

Building on this foundation, severalsurveyshave since synthesized the growing body of work on LLM\-based evaluation across NLP tasks\. For example,Gu et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib35)\)provide a comprehensive overview about how to build reliable LLM\-as\-a\-Judge systems, covering bias mitigation, consistency improvement, and prompt design strategies andLi et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib47)\)analyze the LLMs\-as\-judges paradigm from five perspectives \(e\.g\., functionality, methodology, application, meta\-evaluation, and limitations\) Similarly,Li et al\. \([2025a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib46)\)organize the literature around LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in three dimensions:whatto judge \(quality attributes such as helpfulness, safety, and reliability\),howto judge \(tuning and prompting strategies\), andhow to benchmarkLLM judges \(categorizing benchmarks for LLM\-as\-a\-Judge across general performance, bias quantification, challenging tasks, and domain\-specific settings\)\. However, these surveys focus mostly on English without systematically addressing LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in multilingual or low\-resource settings\.

Alongside these surveys, a number ofempirical studiesand position papers have raised important caveats about the paradigm’s reliability\.Bavaresco et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib7)\)conduct a large\-scale empirical study across 20 NLP tasks and find that LLM judges show substantial variability across tasks and datasets, cautioning that they should be carefully validated before deployment\.Chehbouni et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib15)\)argue that LLM\-as\-a\-Judge has been widely adopted before its validity and reliability as an evaluation method have been thoroughly examined\.

Although recent benchmarks such as MM\-Eval\(Son et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib75)\)quantify cross\-lingual judge reliability, no prior study has surveyed the research landscape of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge specifically in multilingual settings and for low\-resource languages\.

## 3Literature Search and Annotation Methodology

### Definition

LLM\-as\-a\-Judgeis used broadly to cover both evaluator\-oriented and annotator\-oriented uses of LLMs in the literature\.Evaluator\-oriented settings use LLM judgments to measure, compare, or validate items \(e\.g\., model responses, system outputs, retrieved evidence, or benchmark examples\)\. Given task\-specific context \(e\.g\., an instruction, source text, candidate response, reference answer, rubric, or label definitions\), the judge produces an evaluative output \(e\.g\., a score, label, ranking, preference judgment, or textual assessment\)\.Annotator\-oriented settings use LLMs to produce labels, metadata, explanations, or error annotations for downstream analysis or training\. In this paper, we focus on the first meaning and only analyze LLM\-as\-evaluator settings\.

### Literature Search Methodology

We conducted a keyword\-based search over metadata from the ACL AnthologyBollmann et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib11)\), which provides comprehensive and structured coverage of research in NLP, including work on multilinguality and low\-resource languages\. Our goal is not to exhaustively enumerate all relevant publications across venues, but to obtain a representative overview of LLM\-based evaluation research within the NLP community\.

We implemented the search as a lightweight, fully reproducible pipeline in our project repository,222\[URL removed for anonymous review\]which contains the code for parsing Anthology XML files and performing keyword matching\.

### Data Source and Reproducibility

Our search operates on the official ACL Anthology repository \([Apache 2\.0 license](https://github.com/acl-org/acl-anthology/blob/master/LICENSE)\), which provides structured XML metadata \(e\.g\., titles, abstracts, and venue information\) for papers published at major ACL venues\. To ensure reproducibility, we fixed the Anthology snapshot to one commit \([370911e](https://github.com/acl-org/acl-anthology/tree/370911ef38556af764c17d456be9fce2d477b0bd), 2025\-11\-14\)\. It includes the major ACL conferences \(e\.g\., ACL, EMNLP, NAACL, EACL, AACL\), two peer\-reviewed journals \(Computational LinguisticsandTACL\), other recurring NLP conferences \(e\.g\., LREC, COLING\), and several hundred specialized workshops\.

### Keyword Design and Matching

The search is applied to the concatenation of each paper’s title and abstract, and is driven by three manually curated keyword groups targeting \(i\) LLMs, \(ii\) evaluation or judging functionality, and \(iii\) low\-resource or multilingual contexts\. Matching is case\-insensitive, and a paper is counted as a hit if it contains at least one keyword from each of the three groups:

- •LLM:\[‘‘LLM’’, ‘‘large language model’’\]
- •Judge:\[‘‘judge’’, ‘‘evaluator’’, ‘‘LLM\-based evaluation’’, ‘‘LLM\-as\-a\-judge’’, ‘‘LLM\-based assessment’’\]
- •Low\-resource: \[‘‘low\-resource’’, ‘‘low resource’’, ‘‘underresourced’’, ‘‘under\-resourced’’, ‘‘underresearched’’, ‘‘under\-researched’’, ‘‘multilingual’’\]

We includemultilingualin the low\-resource group to increase recall, as other low\-resource\-specific terms alone produce relatively few matches\. We also found that some early candidate keywords \(e\.g\.,annotator\) frequently triggered false positives, as they often refer to human annotators rather than automated or LLM\-based evaluators\.

Enforcing low\-resource related keywords substantially reduces the number of retrieved papers\. Specifically, across the full ACL Anthology directory, the number of hits decreases from 650 to 49 under the same constraint\.333The raw search returned 50 results, but one paper \(Song et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib76)\) appeared twice \(once in the Findings of ACL and once in the Proceedings of the Workshop on Multilingual Representation Learning\)\. Therefore, we counted it only once, yielding 49 unique papers\.This indicates that comparatively few papers explicitly position LLM\-based evaluation methods in low\-resource or underrepresented language settings\.

### Annotation and Exclusion Criteria

We manually reviewed each of the 49 candidate papers and annotated the role of the LLM, the task being judged, the languages covered, and the validation protocol against human judgments or gold\-standard benchmark labels\. We identified 33 papers in which an LLM is used to assess model\-generated or human\-produced outputs\. The remaining 16 papers were excluded for the following reasons:

We excluded annotation\-oriented papers in which LLMs are used to directly label text data rather than evaluate outputs of a previous processing step\. These include work using LLMs for toxicity ratings\(Bell et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib9); Faisal et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib30)\), multiclass classification\(Upadhayay and Behzadan,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib82)\), and binary decisions\(Tran and Nam,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib80)\)\.

Some papers contain both the concepts of “LLMs” and “judgment,” but they do not necessarily investigate “LLM\-as\-a\-Judge”\. For example, several papers examine human judgments of LLM output quality\(Anh et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib6); Thakur et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib78)\), moral judgments made by LLMs\(Agarwal et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib4)\), LLMs’ judgments of semantic similarity\(Brglez et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib14); Wang et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib84)\), or grammaticality and acceptability\(Zhang et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib87)\)\. However, they do not use LLMs as evaluators of model outputs, and therefore fall outside our definition of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge\.

We also excluded papers that do not focus on natural language, but instead evaluate programming languages\(Chen et al\.,[2024c](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib18)\)or domain\-specific query languages\(Li et al\.,[2025b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib48)\), as well as two papers444The string “LLM” appeared only as part of the cited name “Fillmore”\(Pimentel,[2012](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib65); Minnema et al\.,[2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib55)\)\.that did not use LLMs\.

Finally, two papers explicitly avoid LLM\-as\-a\-Judge evaluation in favor of objective evaluation, citing self\-enhancement bias\(Dussolle et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib27)\)and low reliability in low\-resource languages\(Song et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib76)\)as reasons\.

\{forest\}

Figure 1:Taxonomy of the 33 papers that use LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in anevaluatorrole \(i\.e\., assessing model\-generated or human\-produced outputs\) in multilingual settings\. Papers are organized along five dimensions:Judging Paradigm\(how the judge scores\),Downstream NLP Tasks,Judge LLMs\(model families used\),Language Coverage, andEvaluation of the Judge\(how judge reliability is assessed\)\. A paper may appear in multiple categories\.

## 4LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in Multilingual Research

We analyze the 33 in\-scope papers along five dimensions \(i\.e\., judging paradigm, downstream task, judge model, language coverage, and judge evaluation\)\. This section organizes our findings around three cross\-cutting claims that draw on these dimensions and motivate the recommendations in Section[5](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#S5)\. Figure[1](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#S3.F1)provides an extensive distribution of the papers across these five dimensions, with a detailed per\-paper breakdown of language coverage in Appendix[A](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#A1)\.

We focus on five judging paradigms:direct scoring\(the LLM judge produces a scalar score, label, or short verdict from input and candidate output, sometimes with a reference or rubric as inDinh et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib24); Gupta et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib36); Qian et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib68)\),pairwise comparison and ranking\(two or more candidate outputs are compared, sometimes with ties as inRaju et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib69); Watts et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib85); Thakur et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib79)\),multi\-step or reasoning\-based judging\(the judge generates explicit reasoning steps before issuing a verdict as inLu et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib52)\),multi\-dimensional judging\(the judge rates several predefined quality aspects separately rather than evaluating quality holistically in one step as inBoughorbel et al\.[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib13); Mukherjee et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib58); Okewunmi et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib62)\), andmulti\-agent or ensemble judging\(verdicts from multiple distinct judges are aggregated into a single final label as inNiklaus et al\.[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib60)\)\.

The downstream tasks evaluated by these judges cover tasks such as machine translation \(MT\), summarization, instruction following, question answering, retrieval\-augmented generation, safety and moderation as well as more specialized tasks \(e\.g\., text style transfer, referential ambiguity resolution, tutoring, and benchmark quality assessment\)\. The distribution of papers and tasks is provided in Figure[1](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#S3.F1)\.

The models used as judges include both generalist instruction\-tuned LLMs and more specialized judge models\. Generalist judges include closed\-source models such as GPT, Gemini, and Claude, as well as open\-source models from families such as Llama and Qwen\. Specialized judges, such as Llama Guard for safety evaluation and domain\-adapted evaluators for specialized tasks, are used in narrower settings where the output space is more constrained\.

Our review shows that LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is already broadly used across NLP tasks, different judge model families, and diverse evaluation settings\. However, a closer reading of the surveyed papers reveals that this breadth also masks several structural weaknesses which we report below as the results of our analyses\.

### Broad Multilingual Coverage but Shallow Depth for Low\-Resource Languages

Broad multilingual coverage in the surveyed literature does not necessarily indicate a focus on low\-resource languages\. We classify languages usingJoshi et al\. \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib42)\)’s taxonomy, treating its Class 0–3 as low\-resource\.555We use a binary classification of language resource level, assigning each language to either the low\-resource or high\-resource category\. While this pre\-LLM classification, based on labeled\-data availability, may not fully capture resourcedness of languages at the time of writing\. We still adopt it because it remains the most widely cited reference in the literature and provides a transparent, reproducible criterion for our purposes\.Among the 19/33 papers \(58%\) that include at least one low\-resource language, coverage is still often skewed toward higher\-resource ones:Sitaram et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib73)\)covers 37 languages,Kocmi et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib44)\)30, andFu and Liu \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib33)\)25\. However, only 36–47% of these language lists can be considered as low\-resource\.Marchisio et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib53)\)cover 22 languages but only 4 \(18%\) of them can be considered as low\-resource\. Only 8 of the 33 papers \(24%\) include low\-resource languages as at least half of their evaluation languages\. The distribution gets even more skewed under a stricter cutoff that excludes Joshi Class 3, the so\-called “Rising Stars” of low\-resource NLP \(e\.g\., Indonesian, Romanian, and Thai\), which already have substantial LLM support\. Only 13/33 papers \(39%\) include at least one low\-resource language under this stricter definition\.

The low\-resource languages that do receive attention are themselves unevenly distributed\. Among the 8 papers in which low\-resource languages constitute at least half of the covered languages, 6 focus primarily on South Asian languages\(Watts et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib85); Sato et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib72); Qian et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib68); Lu et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib52); Doddapaneni et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib25); Duwal et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib28)\), while the remaining cases represent smaller pockets of research on Yorùbá\(Okewunmi et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib62)\)and Romanian\(Niculae et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib59)\)\. Many low\-resource languages are entirely or nearly entirely absent\. Indigenous American and Pacific Island languages do not appear in any of the papers in the survey\. Sub\-Saharan African languages are represented only by Maasai, Swahili, and Yorùbá, which are precisely the settings where dominant judge models are the weakest and where the human reference data needed to validate them is scarcest\(Adelani et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib1); Smart et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib74); Ojo et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib61)\)\.

### Narrow and Closed LLMs in the Judge Ecosystem

The current judge ecosystem is dominated by closed and proprietary models\. More precisely, GPT\-family models are used in 26/33 papers \(79%\), and 14/33 \(42%\) use*only*closed\-source judges, compared with just 4/33 \(12%\) that use*only*open\-source ones\. Cross\-judge validation is not a common practice\. 16/33 papers \(48%\) rely on a single judge model family, and 11/33 \(33%\) use GPT as their sole judge\. Among open\-source generalist alternatives, Llama \(12/33\) and Qwen \(7/33\) are the most common\. However, in most papers they appear alongside GPT rather than on their own \(i\.e\., 10 of the 12 Llama papers and 5 of the 7 Qwen papers also use a GPT model as judge\)\. The majority of judges are generalist instruction\-tuned LLMs, repurposed via rubrics or comparison prompts\. Only 7/33 papers \(21%\) use a model fine\-tuned or specialized for the evaluation task itself, including safety classifiers\(Gupta et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib36)\), judge\-tuned models like JudgeLM\(Bennie et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib10); Farhan,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib31); Preciado Márquez et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib67)\), a domain\-fine\-tuned variant\(Niculae et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib59)\), and evaluator models fine\-tuned for specialized evaluation tasks such as multilingual coherence\(Mendonca et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib54)\)or cross\-lingual evaluation\(Doddapaneni et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib25)\)\.

### Problems with Validation

The third pattern concerns how judge reliability is checked\. On the surface, validation appears widespread\. That is to say, 24/33 papers \(73%\) report some form of human comparison or expert evaluation of the judge in at least one deployment language\. However, this aggregate figure could be obscuring a subtler problem\. Sometimes the more revealing question is not*whether*papers validate, but*which*languages they validate on\. Some papers that deploy LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in multilingual settings check reliability only on a subset of languages\. For example,Mendonca et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib54)\)build a dialogue coherence judge for five languages \(i\.e\., English, French, German, Italian, and Chinese\)\. However, the check against human ratings is performed on an existing English\-only benchmark of human\-annotated dialogue responses\. In other words, the reliability of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in the other languages \(i\.e\., French, German, Italian, and Chinese\) is never compared to a human judgment\. This choice is convenient since a human\-annotated English benchmark is readily available\. However, English is also the language where the reliability of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is perhaps the least controversial \(considering how extensively frontier models have been evaluated on it\)\. As a result, the validation only takes place where it is least needed\. On the other hand, the languages for which an independent check of validity would be more informative are left unchecked\.

The same pattern is also observed when LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is deployed directly in low\-resource languages\. Three papers in our corpus use LLM\-as\-a\-Judge without any human or gold\-label check\.Duwal et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib28)\)use GPT\-4o as the only judge for Nepali generation\. Instead of comparing its Nepali outputs to human or gold labels, this evaluation choice is justified by citing prior work on GPT\-4o’s multilingual coverage\.Thakur et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib79)\)deploy an LLM judge across 18 languages, including low\-resource ones \(e\.g\., Telugu, Swahili, Yorùbá, Bengali, Indonesian, and Thai\)\. They treat the judge’s pairwise preferences as gold labels by default, so the judge’s reliability is assumed rather than tested\.Okewunmi et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib62)\)use GPT\-4o, Gemini 2\.0 Flash, and Claude 3\.7 Sonnet to score Yorùbá question answering without human evaluation of the outputs by the LLM judges\.

These decisions are difficult to justify, because the existing evidence \(both within our corpus and outside it\) indicates thatjudge reliability is language\-conditional rather than uniform\. Among the papers that test judges directly in low\-resource languages, this finding is consistent\.Watts et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib85)\)report that human\-LLM agreement drops for direct assessment, particularly for Bengali and Odia\.Fu and Liu \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib33)\)report an average Fleiss’ Kappa of approximately 0\.3 across 25 languages, with consistency being particularly poor in low\-resource languages, and find that neither multilingual training nor model scale directly improves this result\. Studying GPT\-4 as an evaluator across eight languages,Hada et al\. \([2024b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib38)\)document a bias toward higher scores when human opinions differ and it is most pronounced in lower\-resource and non\-Latin\-script languages\.

Therefore, the problem is not that validation is rare\. It is rather the case that validation is often skipped for low\-resource languages\. In these cases, it is not clear that the LLM\-as\-a\-Judge evaluation can be trusted without human validation, given the underrepresentation of low\-resource languages in LLM training to begin with\.

## 5Discussion and Recommendations

Evaluation of an NLP system is inherently difficult, no matter if it is carried out by humans or LLMs\. To be able to perform the evaluation properly with humans takes a lot of time, effort and resources \(e\.g\., recruiting and training qualified and representative/suitable annotators, collecting multiple annotations per items for a task in a language, identifying and understanding disagreements between annotators, making decisions about how the annotations are aggregated and used for evaluation\)\. Therefore, it could be tempting to ignore many of these difficulties with human judgements and opt for LLMs which seem faster and cheaper\. However, by reviewing the relevant literature \(section[3](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#S3)\), we have identified several recurring issues with this practice for languages other than English, particularly for low\-resource ones\. \(section[4](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#S4)\)\. Based on our survey, we provide the following recommendations for future research using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge\.

### Recommendation 1:

Validate LLMs in multilingual contexts and for low\-resource languages\.While using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge, it is crucial to investigate whether a judge is reliable for a given language\. For instance,Zheng et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88)\)evaluate LLM\-as\-a\-Judge on an English multi\-turn question answering dataset\.Boughorbel and Hawasly \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib12)\)translate this dataset into Arabic and use the same LLM for judging model outputs\. However, their claim that the judge is reliable is only based on the English dataset and is not re\-investigated for Arabic\. Given the fact that LLM judges tend to overestimate the quality of text generated by the same LLMLiu et al\. \([2024a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib50)\); Panickssery et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib64)\), it is especially important to properly validate a judge’s performance on languages that are only covered by few language models, where the set of potential generator and judge models is extremely small\. In multilingual contexts, it is particularly important to compare the validity of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge across the target languages\(Mendonca et al\.,[2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib54); Cruz Blandón et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib20)\)\.

### Recommendation 2:

Keep humans in the loop\.Combining metrics and including human evaluations is a standard procedure in fields like speech synthesis, where automatic metrics capture different properties of the output and an ideal output depends on the context in which a system is deployedWagner et al\. \([2019](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib83)\)\. Similarly, shared tasks for MT systems often complement automatic evaluation metrics with human evaluation on a subset of the data to rank participants’ systems \(e\.g\.,Kocmi et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib44)\)\. When LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is used for low\-resource languages, human evaluation \(at least on a small subset of the data\) and statistical confidence estimates should also be conducted\(cf\. Zheng et al\.,[2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88); Niklaus et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib60)\)\.

It is also important to acknowledge that humans might disagree on how to judge a given textPlank \([2022](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib66)\)or may introduce their own biases\(Chen et al\.,[2024b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib17)\)\. This can depend on many factors, including lack of familiarity with the specific dialect a text is written inKeleg et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib43)\)\. When using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge, there is a need to documentwhichhumans the judge LLM is compared to \(e\.g\., which human population the human evaluators representDoğruöz et al\.,[2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib26)\), and which populations are modelled \(or not modelled\) by the LLM judges\. Researchers should document their selection criteria, and both the language competence and domain expertise of the human evaluators, as well as any other relevant criteria beyond their academic status\.

### Recommendation 3:

Check if non\-LLM\-based metrics are equally or more feasible\.While LLM\-as\-a\-Judge is a new paradigm for evaluating LLM\-generated outputs or human annotations, there is a need to carefully consider which existing metrics can actually be replaced by LLM judges, and which should still be usedalongside them\. This should highly depend on the competence of the LLM on the target language and their agreement with human judgment\. For instance, traditional metrics \(e\.g, Exact Match and F1\-score\) in Question Answering may prefer short answers while LLM generations are generally more verbose\. LLM\-as\-a\-Judge has been shown to provide better and more flexible extraction of answers than these reference\-based metricsAdlakha et al\. \([2024b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib3)\)\. However, this is only validated for English, and even in this setting models often do not stay faithful to provided references\. If references are available for a dataset, conventional if flawed metrics \(e\.g\., chrF\) should still be used alongside LLM judges to catch cases where the LLM that is being judged generated text in the wrong language variety\.

The weaker the LLM’s competence in a language, the more errors and biases are likely to be introduced by LLM\-as\-a\-Judge evaluation \(e\.g\., rewarding longer answersZheng et al\. \([2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib88)\); Chen et al\. \([2024b](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib17)\)\), preferring their own generations in direct comparisonLiu et al\. \([2024a](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib50)\); Panickssery et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib64)\), or relying on their own internal knowledge and ignoring explicit referencesLee et al\. \([2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib45)\)\. Therefore, LLM\-as\-a\-Judge should only be used when there is absolutely no better or equally good existing metric is available\. In addition, it should be used in conjunction and comparison with validated metrics \(if possible\) but it should be avoided when there is a high risk of conflicting information between task\-specific references and the LLM’s learned representation\.

### Recommendation 4:

Consider real\-world relevance and representativeness beyond language\.The amount of available language data is not the only relevant dimension with respect to using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in low\-resource settings, and failures on different dimensions should be distinguished\. For instance, linguistic competence and cultural competence can be two independent dimensions\.Watts et al\. \([2024](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib85)\)show that LLM evaluators agree less with humans on evaluating responses with culturally specific nuances\. LLMs reproduce and amplify social and cultural stereotypes in their outputs\(Mitchell et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib56)\)and even introduce these \(without being asked\) in text\-to\-image generation, purely based on the language the prompt is written in\(Holtermann et al\.,[2026](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib40)\)\. Besides investigating cultural competence, future work could also focus on low\-resource domains \(e\.g\., how well LLM\-as\-a\-Judge works in medical or legal contexts across languages, cf\.Diekmann et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib23); Spiegel et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib77); Rolshoven et al\.,[2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib70)\)\.

## 6Conclusion

Evaluation is an important and necessary part of NLP pipelines, and it can be challenging in multilingual and low\-resource settings\. Currently, LLMs are widely used in the evaluation process across NLP tasks\. Our goal in this paper was to explore the use of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge paradigm for multilingual and low\-resource settings in the literature\. While application of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge increasingly includes low\-resource languages, our survey shows that this does not automatically lead to inclusive application, as validation of LLM judges is still mostly done for English only\. Although LLM judges may reduce the annotation costs and may deliver faster results, this benefit is limited when their judgments require additional verification or when the target language is weakly supported by the LLM judge\. Therefore, human validation remains essential, especially for low\-resource languages, where judge reliability cannot be assumed by default\. Ideally, studies should validate LLM judges on a representative subset of target\-language examples, report agreement with human or gold\-label references, and clearly document the limitations of automatic judgments\. If this is not done, the ease and ubiquity of LLM\-as\-a\-Judge evaluation may become its own downfall\. Although there is an increase in multilingual NLP evaluations, many of the included languages are still low\-resource\. Therefore, LLM performance may not be properly validated on them before the LLMs are used as judges on these same languages\. This cycle will degrade the evaluation quality while superficially pretending to increase the representation breadth\.

We hope that the results of our study will raise awareness about the limitation of LLMs\-as\-a\-Judge paradigm in critical evaluation contexts and our recommendations will serve as guidelines for NLP researchers who work on low\-resource languages and multilingual settings\.

## Limitations

Although we performed a thorough search of the ACL Anthology, we might have missed papers by not searching for specific language names or including other search terms \(e\.g\., “dialects”, “varieties”\)\. Furthermore, our keyword search only matches papers whose titles and/or abstracts are in English\. We only cover papers that appeared in the ACL Anthology \(in order to point out current research trends in the \*ACL community\), but other papers \(or paper drafts\) using LLM\-as\-a\-Judge in multilingual settings and/or for LRLs might be in other research venues or on preprint servers\.

Our paper consists of an analysis of already published papers rather than new experiments\. This is in part precisely due to the challenges \(e\.g\., lack of data, lack of good existing metrics for NLG tasks in LRL languages, difficulties with finding human experts for evaluating the LLM judges\) of working with LRL data and in part because our aim is to show shortcomings of current research trends in \*ACL research\.

## Ethical Considerations

The annotators of the ACL Anthology papers are the authors of this paper, who carried out the annotation work as part of their jobs\.

We use data from the ACL Anthology in accordance with one of its intended uses: academic research about NLP research \(cf\.Bollmann et al\.,[2023](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib11)\)\.

In parts of this paper, LLMs were used for helping with phrasing and/or correcting English \(e\.g\., grammar, mistakes\), and for assisting with the preparation of figures and tables\.

## Acknowledgement

This work has benefitted from the participation of A\. Seza Doğruöz, David Adelani, Verena Blaschke, Jakob Prange and Xixian Liao’s participation in Dagstuhl Seminar 25301 "Linguistics and Language Models: What Can They Learn from Each Other?"\. We thank Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz Center for Informatics for providing an inspiring research environment\. David Adelani acknowledges the support of Schmidt Sciences AI2050 program\.

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## Appendix APer\-paper language coverage

This appendix provides a per\-paper breakdown of language coverage across the 33 in\-scope papers \(Table[1](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#A1.T1)\)\. For each paper, we list the languages covered, sorted by ’s \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib42)\) language resource taxonomy\. We treat languages of class 0–3 as low\-resource\. Note that this taxonomy is from 2020 and might thus underestimate the current availability of language resources\. Also note that the framing of a language’s resourcedness may be different in the papers surveyed\. E\.g\., the surveyed papers that include Basque \(class 4\) frame it as a low\-resource languageBennie et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib10)\); Farhan \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib31)\); Preciado Márquez et al\. \([2025](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib67)\)\.

Table 1:Language coverage per surveyed paper \(n=33\)\. Languages are sorted using[Joshi et al\.](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib42)’s \([2020](https://arxiv.org/html/2607.02235#bib.bib42)\) taxonomy \(0 = least resources, 5 = most resources\)\. “LR” = low\-resource, counting languages from classes 0–3 \(language names in italics\)\. Papers are sorted by number of LR languages covered \(descending\), then by lowest resource class included, then publication year \(ascending\), then alphabetically by author\. For MT, both source and target languages are counted\.